Mao's China Through A Populist Lens

Abstract

The international community has found an endogenous element in their domestic policies apart from this period of globalization. Nation states are drawing tighter curtains  around their borders in an attempt to safe-guard culture, customs, and economic principles.  China has found a greater source for populism through President Xi Jinping who now has unlimited terms in office to shape a stronger China, militarily and economically, in the South China Sea region . 

Keywords:  China, Mass - Line populism, Mao Zedong, Tibet, Colonialism.

Introduction

Closed fist or open hand illustrate the concept of globalization that was prevalent historically including the recent malaise with Brexit in Britain, and Donald Trump in the United States. Both cases reflect democracies adopting a populist methodology within their borders. Authoritarian regimes are protectionist by their very nature. North Korea is termed the "Hermit State"while China has slowly been evolving since 1949 when a civil war split China proper into communist mainland and nationalist Taiwan i.e.   the Kuomintang Party capitulated to Taiwan led by Chiang Kai - shek.  Britain returned Hong Kong in 1997 to China (the Handover;) the Sino plan is reminiscent  of colonialism and is internal in nature manifested through the central government.   The Tibetan occupation can be characterized by “exploitation colonialism”  where natural resources and labour have been exploited by the Chinese authorities. A crucial symptom of thos brand of colonialism is the constraint of traditional Tibetan culture and religion. This cultural genocide has led to 155 self immolations (127 men/28 women) since 2009 according to International Campaign For Tibet - 2019 estimates.
The closed - fist  analogy encompasses logic and methodology when reconciling  historical elements. Indeed, history demonstrates that regimes structure themselves hegemoncally, while Modeleski (1978) states that a cycle in world politics is approximately 100 years.1 The open  hand is symbolic of rhetoric and dialogue; the open hand captures the essence of Plato's Lyceum  and representative government. Furthermore, history would lend itself to the demise of Pax Americana that followed the collapse of British colonialism, which itself began in 1947 with the departure  of  India and Pakistan and an insolvent Britain due to the expenses related to war.    Signs point towards an empowered China signalling the era of Pax Sinica.  There are those that hold that Chinese missiles can render American aircraft carriers immobile in a military conflict. That China commands 2nd place in global (nominal) GDP helps to finance this expansion.  If we look at the early stages of Pax Americana, Robert Gilpin found that "1945 was America's first unipolar moment ...with the U.S. accounting for 50% of world  GDP" and the U.S. dollar displacing the Pound as the principal reserve currency."2


The Central governments insistence on territorial integrity 

In 2009 China enacted a nine - dash line to indicate their territorial sovereignty in the South China Sea. Ironically, the Central government was led by the more moderate Hu Jintao (tell that to Tibetans) than the hawkish, Xi Jinping. Xi can be thankful to Hu for leaving him an outline to enforce those areas for Chinese claims. Now, one could argue that Chin'a navy was not ready to instil its will upon their neighbours at that time. However, the nine dash line was a blue-print for domination of the seas in that region. The U.S. Energy Information Agency estimated that approximately 190 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and 11 billion barrels of oil in reserves; hence, China’s pursuit of those deposits no matter their proximity to the 9 dash line. Currently,  China's coast guard and other marine units are encroaching onto Vietnam’s and The Philippines  EEZ economic zones as they scroll for energy deposits setting off stand offs that could lead to military engagements without intervention by the international community. Indeed, that Rosnet, a Russian energy giant that is working with Vietnam, has not dissuaded China from pursuing their interests and is in fact, interfering in Vietnam’s  research to mine their own natural resources costing them millions of dollars in unnecessary expenditures due to delays. China’s actions violate UNCLOS (UN Convention of the Law of the Sea) as  they have stationed their geological survey ship -  Haiyang Dizhi 8 within 200 nautical miles of Vietnam’s coast. All claimants including China are setting to establish a code of conduct in the region, however, will those terms be amiable to the claimants interests. Already,  The Philippines President Rodrigo  Duterte, appears to be succumbing to Xi Jinping  and Chinese pressure to make a deal.


The Case of Hong Kong in 2019 

The Chinese flag is characterised by one large golden star with four smaller golden stars on the periphery. According to worldatlas.com the base colour - red - is symbolic of the Communist revolution and is the time-honoured colour of the people.  The central star represents the Communist Party of China.  The four smaller stars represent  the working class, the peasantry, the urban petite bourgeoisie and the national bourgeoisie class systems. Moreover, the number five is important in Chinese thought and history as it is associated with the five elements: earth, water, fire, wood and metal and is considered the essence of the world. The Tiananmen gate has five arches leading to the Forbidden City which  was the Chinese Imperial Palace from the Ming Dynasty.

Alas, in the realm of international law, borders and territorial  jurisdictions require a complex array of time honoured agreements that balance out financial considerations against the backdrop of human rights and democratic postulations. Historical interpretations get a little murky when ideologies butt up against one another as we are witnessing currently with the malaise in Hong Kong over an extradition bill that Hongkongers want no part of and where protesters- mostly students - have forced the hand of Chief Executive, Carrie Lam to withdraw the bill, which she has done, on September 4. The emboldened students want universal suffrage and why not - their future is now, tomorrow and in 2047 when Hong Kong officially reverts to Chinese state- hood, all things considered.   So, where is China now in this wave of populism and nationalism that is sweeping many changes across the developed world? As we will see, historical considerations play a significant role on how the central government manages their relationship with the general public that is similar to Russia’s managed democracy, currently with the caveat that China’s electoral system remains a one party juggernaut.


Populist Authoritarianism

Mao spoke in 1943 of a "mass line" being inculcated in Chinese society from grass-roots to all elements of society  through government institutions in order to instil legitimacy in the government. The absence of elections require the government to take a concerted effort to foster legitimacy. Historically, scholars can say that mass line was highly successful in Mao's campaign - The Cultural Revolution, in particular , and The Great Leap Forward, in general despite the tragic consequences. Mobilisation of the "mass line" was highly structured to ensure the implementation of these programs that "...sought economic growth" accompanied by "social and political egalitarianism." Mass Line connects the state with the public  often bypassing administrative regulations and the legal procedure, resulting in weak institutions and civic organizations. The  state encourages the public to participate in local politics in an effort to correct unpopular policies and purge incompetent officials. As a result, the mass public demonstrates a high level of political activism and is eager to confront local authorites and engage in contentious political behaviour. Mao effectively used mass-line 3
Tang notes that the government responds to public demand faster because there aren't elections to foster legitimacy in  the regime at the Center. While this is noteworthy for issues on the mainland, recently, there is a disconnect between the  demonstrations in Hong Kong over the extradition bill that, ultimately was rescinded by Chief Executive, Carrie Lam. If the central government was acting in the spirit of one country - two systems, the extradition bill would have been debated more rigorously in an open matter among Hongkongers or put to a public vote. This would have avoided the pox that is Hong Kong’s protest movement against state- sponsored public officials and the deep fissure between the pro democracy movement and supporters of the central government.
 Care must be taken not to confuse government policy such as Deng's of opening up the economy as a mass line approach to garnering legitimacy, although the strengthening of the Chinese economy has given the central government legitimacy and the raison d' 'etat for maintaining the political structure. Moreover, the Soviet example of veering away from a populist mass line in a traditional sense towards "glasnost" and "perestroika" towards a western populist sentiment resulted in the collapse of the Soviet Union and a reminder to the central government to allow freedoms of expression in a piecemeal manner in order to maintain order and manifest pride in the center in a mass line to the core of society.  Mao used mass-line to win over popular support and defeat the Kuomintang, nationalist government in 1949.

Though, we talk of authoritarian governments in a manner that is counter to human rights  and democracy through mass -line, democracy is assimilated through delegation to the proletariat while government policies are tentative and dependant on  the masses evaluations and suggestions. Success with  mass line and public policy appears to have more zeal from top down to villages and rural regions as opposed to urban centres.


Conclusion

To sum up, this situation in Hong Kong brings two mass level populist movements in direct contrast to each groups objectives. The central government is restricted in its policy choices because of the memory of Tiananmen in 1989, social media and a 24 hour news cycle as well as   the technical prowess of drones and satellites that provide surveillance of military movements. This may make a difference on military policy if it contains violent outbreaks. Perhaps, Russia's seizure of Crimea was limited to Ukrainian members of the media who were abducted and had gone missing. The Umbrella Movement in Hong Kong saw the police abduct book sellers linked to Causeway Bay Books. Therefore, authoritarian governments operate surreptitiously when mass line breaks down that inhibits their policy decision making apparatus. Moreover, it can  be said that totalitarian regimes commit to  a protracted form of state control over society, while mass line consists of communication between state and society on a wholistic basis to instil confidence in the executive. This was evident during the Hussein period in Iraq, the  Assad time-line in Syria, and during the Kim dynasty in North Korea, as recent examples.  Typically, authoritarian regimes resort to a “cult of personality” to maintain public support as China has done so with Xi Jinping recently, granting him unlimited term limits and policy commitments through ‘Xi Jinping Thought’ 4 in China’s constitution. It is fair for China to insist on territorial integrity, however, as is the case for authoritarian regimes, in particular, those boundaries favour their policy constructs. Colonial regimes have operated in the same vacuum, regardless of ideology.

Is the current strengthening of China's position in Southeast Asia the decline of Pax Americana? Does this represent an international shift away from America to China regarding foreign policy? China's militarization of The Spratley Islet's and overall military budget of  164 billion for 2019 make it, in terms of largesse and capability, highly reflective of its second overall stature internationally and second to America, whose military budget for 2019 is reported at approximately 650 billion, while some outlets i.e. the Washington Post report that it is higher than one trillion. Additional war related expenditures for current conflict and potential conflicts, and the management of the F 35 program exacerbate reported figures. The PRC under Xi's command wants to control areas around the Pacific, while expanding its sphere of influence through the BRI (Belt & Road Initiative.) America cannot effectively challenge China in Southeast Asia and expect a victory. America can expect to maintain their global  hegemony as it is willing to outspend its rivals and has the technological means to support those endeavours. Finally, if we consider the notion of "soft power" America leads internationally in academia, entertainment, and overall influence. Acceptance of China's rise is key, while using that position to bolster their own stance through trade agreements, and collective security mean the status quo remains. Proxy wars will continue in Southeast Asia provided a full scale military outbreak does not engulf Taiwan or other interests where America has a strong influence. Pax Sinica is a regional phenomenon with  great potential for international implications if American leaders are not assertive, similar to America versus Soviet ambitions.

As China turns inward and further right - ideologically following the populist movement,  Jiang Xueqin, a researcher based in Beijing notes that there is a shift away from western influence that is undermining thought in Hong Kong academia. To quote Jiang:“This is also very much connected to what is happening in Hong Kong. They see too much Western free thought in Hong Kong schools as the root cause, and so correct political indoctrination is becoming the top education priority.”

While the code emphasizes the need for “fair justice” and morally guided public policy, it also calls for a “civic moral construction” effort across all instruments of government, and calls for severe consequences for those who fail to meet the new standard. It says: “Establish a regular mechanism to punish immoral behaviour and form a social atmosphere that nurtures justice, dispels evil, punishes bad and promotes good.“

“China is regressing,” Mr. Jiang said. “And it is all happening very fast.”5

Since 2005, the central government has  evoked a more aggressive maritime  policy in the South China Sea and has recused itself from any arbiter related hearings associated with UNCLOS. China policy is party centric, while the Chairman acts as a broker, which is typical of bi cameral governments. Xi Jinping has consolidated power within the Party and now has unlimited terms for the foreseeable future, while, he  has approved the ADIZ identification zones. Established nation states transiting  the region   declare the freedom to operate in international waters, that precludes them from following this protocol, much to the chagrin of the  central government. Therefore, China's aggressive stance, most recently, should be reflective of PRC policy and not heralded by Xi, himself. In  fact, currently, the USCG (United States Coast Guard) has been present in the South China Sea to counter  China's naval pursuits. The ultimate goal of the PRC is exploiting the energy rich East and South China Seas, while unifying Taiwan with the Mainland, thus, maintaining a populist approach to governing ushered in by Mao in  1943 as a successful "mass - line" approach. This populist social policy  propelled the PRC into power in 1949 against the nationalist Kuomintang government during the Chinese civil war. 

Xi Jinping Thought

The thought consists of a 14-point basic policy as follows:
1 Ensuring Communist Party of China leadership over all forms of work in China.
2 The Communist Party of China should take a people-centric approach for the public interest.
3 The continuation of "comprehensive deepening of reforms".
4 Adopting new science-based ideas for "innovative, coordinated, green, open and shared development".
5 Following "socialism with Chinese characteristics" with "people as the masters of the country".
6 Governing China with Rule of Law.
7 "Practice socialist core values", including Marxism, communism and socialism with Chinese characteristics.
8 "Improving people's livelihood and well-being is the primary goal of development".
9 Coexist well with nature with "energy conservation and environmental protection" policies and "contribute to global ecological safety".
10 Strengthen national security.
11 The Communist Party of China should have "absolute leadership over" China's People's Liberation Army.
12 Promoting the one country, two systems system for Hong Kong and Macau with a future of "complete national reunification" and to follow the One-China policy and 1992 Consensus for Taiwan.
13 Establish a common destiny between Chinese people and other people around the world with a "peaceful international environment".
14 Improve party discipline in the Communist Party of China.




Works Cited

1 Kornprobst, Markus, ed. Metaphors of Globalization: Mirrors, Magicians and Mutinies.   New York: Palgrave MacMillan. 2008.

2 Layne, Christopher. "The U.S. China Power Shift and the end of the Pax Americana." International Affairs, Volume 94, Issue 1, January 2018, Pages 89–111.  <https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix249>. 8 September 2019. Layne quotes Gilpin on global GDP & reserve currency.

3 Tang, Wenfang. Populist Authoritarianism: Chinese Political Culture and Regime Sustainability. New York: Oxford. 2016.

4 "Xi Jinping Thought". Wikipedia. 11 October 2019.  <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping_Thought>. 14 October 2019.

5 Vanderklippe, Nathan. "China's New Moral Guide Elevates Xi over Mao, Urges National Pride Over Foreign Influence." The Globe and Mail. 28 October 2019. <https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-chinas-moral-guide-urges-national-pride-over-foreign-influence/>. 29 October 2019.